Why do we protect some marine species while completely ignoring others?
by Simona Hamilton
International disputes have shaped human history, but one thing that unites the world is the unanimous condemnation of whale hunting. Many governments have publicly expressed their disapproval of the practice, and environmental activist groups actively strive to interfere with commercial whale hunting. As whales are genial and charismatic species, they evoke sympathy and identification among humans, who recognize them as fellow mammals, albeit large ones. However, this affinity does not extend to all other marine species. Unfortunately, most other fished marine species such as tuna and cod suffer from overfishing and changes in the ecosystem. Since 1985, the International Whaling Committee (IWC) has maintained an anti-whaling ban which 88 member countries proudly uphold to this day. And while this ban has been successful in halting the decline of whale numbers, commercial and industrial fishing practices continue to deplete our oceans at an unprecedented rate. It begs the question: why have we concentrated all our efforts on preserving one group of marine mammals while countless fish species across entire oceans suffer overfishing and face the risk of imminent collapse of their populations?
The passion and dedication demonstrated in conserving hunted whale species serves as an example of the positive impact humans can have on conservation. However, with the need to sustain a growing civilization and ensure job security, it is time for us to unite our efforts and focus on preserving equally valuable marine species, regardless of their charisma or anthropomorphic appeal.
Our Love for Whales: the Role of Flagship Species
Are you particularly fond of fluffy, docile animals like the Australian koala or Chinese giant panda? Have you donated to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to protect their environments and prevent their extinction? These species, known as flagship species, are strategically highlighted in the media to garner public support for the conservation of their ecosystems and their survival. However, in reality, the focus is often on conserving the entire ecosystem, its natural resources, and the other animals within it. The giant panda, for instance, is not only the most protected animal on Earth¹ but also the symbol of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Why is this the case? It's because their childlike features instinctually attract humans. While protecting this species is crucial, what many people don't realize is that conservation efforts also aim to preserve bamboo forests. By funding initiatives to safeguard panda populations, we are also ensuring the preservation of bamboo ecosystems. Bamboo, a fast-growing and highly renewable resource, serves as an alternative to fossil fuels, is used in construction and sale products, and aids in the restoration of degraded land without competing with agriculturally productive areas.² These forests are also home to numerous other species that may be considered less desirable to protect, such as the yellow-throated marten or Asian black bear.¹ Giant pandas are important because they contribute to seed dispersal, but their true value lies in the significance we assign to them. Without international support for protecting giant pandas, bamboo forests and the diverse array of species they harbor would remain at risk.
The same principle applies to whales. Cetaceans, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises, are regarded as vital flagship species due to their direct connection to the ocean and the hundreds of thousands of species that inhabit it. As air-breathing mammals, humans can physically witness them and thereby develop a personal connection and perception of the underwater world. However, since most people lack firsthand experience in marine environments, it becomes challenging to consider the impact our choices may have on this delicate ecosystem. Whales serve as a bridge between humans and the underwater world for conservation purposes. By safeguarding areas where whales migrate, we inadvertently protect the entire ecosystem and the species within it. Given their extensive habitat range, cetaceans as a whole make for an ideal conservation focus.³ Sadly, conservation efforts for other marine species, especially those lacking appealing physical appearances, are largely non-existent.
The subsequent paragraphs dive into the fishing industry, addressing issues such as overfishing, the consequences of poor fishing practices, and successful management strategies that can transform centuries of exploitative behavior, enabling us to protect fished species as effectively as we do whales.
The History of Fishing
Different scientists argue about the history of fishing, claiming it began at various points in time.⁴,⁵,⁶ There is no specific culture, community, or date that can be credited with "inventing" fishing. Fishing, like hunting and foraging for wild plants, came naturally to humans worldwide.⁴ The initial few hundred thousand years of "fishing" were opportunistic attempts to secure food.⁴ It was only around 40,000 years ago that fossils started showing evidence of cultures using tools like harpoons, nets, and hooks.⁷,⁸ Similarly, whaling began as "subsistence whaling" by communities in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Arctic Ocean around 3000 BCE.⁹ However, commercial whaling for profit didn't commence until the 11th century and only gained popularity in the 17th century.⁹ It reached its peak during the 19th and 20th century (led by North America & Norway) as whale oil and baleen sales fueled booming economies, severely depleting whale populations.⁹ Mass-commercial whaling ended in 1978, and in 1986, the International Whaling Commission implemented a moratorium — a temporary ban on whaling — that remains in effect today. Nonetheless, small-scale subsistence and commercial hunting, and scientific research still persist.
When it comes to the revival of threatened species, the anti-whaling movement and the resulting moratorium stand as a few of the rare success stories throughout history. Unfortunately, this experience hasn't yielded similar outcomes for other marine species on the brink of collapse and extinction due to high fishing pressures, excessive by-catch, and destructive fishing practices. So, why have we dedicated significant efforts to conserve a limited selection of cetaceans while blatantly disregarding the issues of rampant overfishing, substantial by-catch, and detrimental fishing practices?
Current Fishing Practices & Effective Management Tools
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the fisheries and aquaculture sector recorded an impressive yield of 184.1 million tons of seafood in 2022, with over 91 million tons caught at sea.¹⁰ This enormous quantity surpasses the combined production of all terrestrial meat products.¹⁰ The fishing industry currently provides employment to 10-12% of the global population and just last year, it generated a trade revenue of 193.5 billion USD, indicating a 10.7% increase from the previous year.¹⁰ Over the period from 1990 to 2018, fish consumption worldwide has witnessed a remarkable 122% increase¹⁰, serving as a primary source of protein for over 70% of some coastal and island countries.¹¹ Clearly, fishing plays a crucial role as a vital food source and livelihood for many regions across the globe. To ensure the availability of this significant animal produce worldwide, efficient management of fishing practices is of utmost importance.
"This enormous quantity surpasses the combined production of all terrestrial meat products"
Poor fishing practices have a far-reaching impact beyond fish themselves. Between 1950 and 2000, nearly 1 in 4 fisheries experienced collapse – meaning the population of fished species declined to less than 10% of its original size.¹³ An example of this is Canada's Atlantic Cod fishery, which faced intense fishing pressure in 1992 and collapsed to less than 1% of its initial biomass. Even after more than 30 years, the fishery remains in a critical state.¹⁴ Such fishing pressures and inadequate practices pose a real threat not only to the survival of fished species but also to the livelihoods of those who depend on them. Following the Atlantic Cod collapse and subsequent moratorium, Canada's economy suffered a severe blow. Approximately 30,000 individuals lost their jobs, and despite government financial aid, which some people rely on to this day, around 10% of the population fled to seek employment elsewhere.¹⁵
Fisheries collapse can easily be linked to financial greed from booming sales but to solely blame this this would be unfair. Scientific projections of stock capacity were also at fault. Stock models significantly underestimated population levels and recruitment (the number of juvenile fish that survive and join the population for future fishing).¹⁶ Although fishing target-models have improved in recent decades, they still lack substantial reliability. Therefore, we need conservation methods and real-time monitoring that, in conjunction with stock models, can ensure the safety of target species. Ultimately, guaranteeing our own food and job security. Apart from the consequences of overfishing, poor management and fishing practices can inflict significant harm on non-target species and the surrounding ecosystem.
Poor Fishing Practices
1. Bycatch: The Incidental Capture of Non-Target Species
The definition of bycatch varies globally depending on the nature of the catch. However, a relatively simple and precise description is: 'catch that remains unused or unmanaged'.¹⁷ 'Unused' refers to animals discarded back into the ocean, while 'unmanaged' encompasses catch that is unregulated or unreported.¹⁷ This poses a genuine threat to the survival of numerous species because without knowledge of population numbers, conservation efforts cannot be effectively implemented. For instance, approximately 50% of shark catch in pelagic (open ocean) fisheries is bycatch.¹⁸ Unfortunately, this bycatch is often not reported, or if reported, not recorded at the species level.¹⁹ Consequently, official fisheries statistics may document the catch as 'shark' rather than a specific shark species.
Bycatch is discarded for various reasons, such as lack of market demand, exceeding quotas, poor physical condition, or being an illegal catch.¹⁷ These discarded animals, dead or dying, represent not only a significant protein waste but also a loss of life.¹⁸,²⁰ Sharks and other common bycatch species, such as cetaceans, have long lifespans and low reproduction rates. Without accurate data, there is little that can be done to ensure the protection of these species.
Bycatch has been a significant issue in the fishing industry for decades. So, what solutions have been developed to address this problem? The FAO's International Guidelines on Bycatch Management and Reduction of Discards are only voluntary efforts aimed at reducing bycatch among fishermen.¹² However, if we genuinely desire change, collaboration between government bodies, scientific researchers, and fishermen is the most effective way forward. Their combined efforts have already yielded successful examples worldwide. Various devices, such as excluder or bycatch reduction devices, effectively repel non-target species from nets,¹⁹ while changes to gear, hooks and nets have also shown a reduction. But unfortunately, these changes aren’t effective in all scenarios. Species-specific solutions will reduce the largest amount of bycatch in all fisheries. Just last year, along Mexico’s Baja California peninsula, coastal small-scale fisheries adopted the use of LED lighted gillnets. The experiment resulted in a 63% decrease in total bycatch and also reduced the time it takes for fishers to disentangle the nets by 57%.²¹ These changes will be revolutionary for conserving non-target species and in increasing the speed of work. And all of this has occurred without impacting the catch rate or market value of the target species!²¹
2. Impact to Ecosystems: Trawling
Trawling represents the largest-scale fishing method, in which fishermen cast large nets into the water column and tow them behind boats to collect everything within the net's reach. As a result, preventing bycatch becomes almost impossible. Excluder or bycatch reduction devices (BRD) are used to repel non-target species and have also been proven successful in reducing bycatch. The use of a turtle reduction device in a shrimp fishery in Australia reduced turtle bycatch by 99%, also deterring other species although, to a lesser extent.²² Scientists have pointed out that BRDs must be species specific in order to be truly successful.¹⁹ ‘Hydrostatic release’ has also been used to prevent seal bycatch in Australia. This technique keeps nets closed beyond depths at which seals swim.²³
Bottom trawling involves dragging the net along the seafloor to target bottom-dwelling fish and shrimp. This practice is widely recognized as the most destructive method of fishing due to its consequences on reef structures such as corals, sponges, and seagrass beds. These valuable habitats are uprooted from the seafloor, devastating the ecosystem. The impact is so severe, satellites in space can detect sediment plumes caused by trawling.²⁴ Fortunately, some countries, including Australia, have implemented effective management strategies such as the establishment of closure areas (no fishing zones) to mitigate the impact on vulnerable habitats.²³
However, these efforts merely scratch the surface, as trawling carries more subtle yet equally destructive consequences.
These include:
o The depletion of fish stocks
o Alterations in food-web structures known as trophic cascades
o Conflicts with artisanal fishermen. In developing countries, where coastal towns largely depend on fishing as their primary source of protein, trawling pressure (alongside urban development) has significantly reduced fish stocks. For example, along coastal regions of West Africa, rather than returning home empty handed, artisanal fishermen are resorting to the ‘aquatic bushmeat trade’ as their primary source of fishing.²⁵ This includes the hunting of dolphins, small whales and turtles among other species, some of which are endemic to the area (only found in that region of the world).²⁶ Some species hunted for the bushmeat trade are also considered endangered but, without reporting like in commercial fishing, it's impossible to protect these animals from over exploitation.²⁵
Each of these points represents a crucial topic on its own, highlighting the profound impact that commercial fishing can exert on ecosystems.
Conversation Efforts - Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), also known as marine reserves or ‘no-take’ areas, are a favored conservation technique in protecting biodiversity of marine ecosystems. They are built on the foundations of managing fisheries, protecting endangered species, maintaining historical sites, and overall, preserving biodiversity and the general health of an ecosystem.³² However, the degree to which these protected areas effectively accomplish this, is a largely contentious debate within the scientific community. Many studies have proven MPAs to be successful while others reveal the weaknesses of MPAs and their failure to achieve conservation targets.²⁷ There are several common issues surrounding the use of MPAs. Environmental changes are unpredictable and can therefore influence their success rate.²⁷ But perhaps the most challenging and yet equally important issue is the lack of jurisdiction and weak legislations surrounding fishing quotas. Reading through the literature shows that MPAs are most effective when community engagement is high and government legislations are effectively implemented.²⁷
Marine ecosystem management must consider alternative management schemes alongside MPAs. But, when successful, the impact of an MPA can be extraordinary as they:
o Allow populations of exploited predatory fish species to strengthen and grow without being overfished³²
o Maintain ecosystem health and diversity
o Promote tourism, subsequently improving the local economy²⁷
A Story of Failure to Success – Peruvian Anchovy Fisheries Case Study
Peru's anchovy fishery has achieved remarkable success and holds the title of the largest fishery in the world. In 2009, it accounted for 87% of Peru's annual fish catch.²⁸ This achievement is even more remarkable considering that the fishery experienced a major collapse in 1972 due to overfishing. The abundance and distribution of anchovy in Peru are significantly influenced by climate variability, particularly the El Niño Southern Oscillation Index (ENSO).¹³,¹⁸ ENSO is an ocean-atmospheric circulation pattern that includes periods of extreme warmth (El Niño) and extreme cold (La Niña) in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
During the years from 1973 to 1984, the eastern Pacific Ocean experienced above-average ocean temperatures, making it challenging for the anchovy population to recover after being overfished to near-extinction. During this period, fish catch remained low, encouraging the industry to explore strategies to mitigate fluctuations in fish stocks caused by natural factors.¹³ Some strategies trialed remain in use today. One strategy involved recognizing that during warmer ocean periods, diversifying fish catch to include invading fish populations would alleviate pressure on the anchovy stock, reducing the risk of overfishing.²⁹ Another included intensive monitoring implemented through collaboration, between fishing companies and management authorities. This monitoring focused on assessing the abundance and distribution of the anchovy population, enabling the implementation of sustainable quotas, known as Total Allowable Catch (TAC). Each fishing vessel has its own TAC, and daily fish catch is reported in real-time. If the quota is reached, the fishing season must come to an end, all ports are closed, and anchovy fishing is officially banned for the rest of the season.²⁹ An equally effective monitoring measure is the temporary closure of ports for a minimum of three days if more than 10% of the catch consists of juvenile (young) anchovy. In response to years of low fish catch, some companies have also adapted by introducing canned and frozen sales.²⁹
These strategies are successful approaches to managing changes in fish stocks, emphasizing the importance of not setting a fixed quota at the beginning of the fishing season and chasing this amount regardless of environmental factors at play. The collapse of the Peruvian Anchovy fishery and the subsequent years of dwindling catch are well-known within fishing communities and among marine scientists. However, the current strategies employed to cope with environmental changes are equally inspiring and should serve as an example that, with proper management and cooperation between companies and authorities, fisheries can be effectively sustained.
We've Saved the Whales, Now it's Time to Save the Fish
The most thorough examination of global fisheries to date comes from a study which conducted a review of 1,063 fisheries across 70 different countries.³⁰ The study revealed that the most effectively managed fisheries correlate with the best knowledge of stock status. This seems like a no-brainer. On average, poor fisheries management (high fishing pressure) reduced fish populations. Whereas, effective management (fisheries who incorporated strategies to prevent or ease fishing pressure) boosted populations or maintained catch quotas.³⁰ Unfortunately, the situation is more complex for collapsed fish stocks, as exemplified by the Atlantic Cod Fishery. Recovery in such cases can take a significantly longer time.³¹ Instead of waiting for fisheries to collapse and livelihoods to be lost, let's ensure that all fisheries receive proper management. This necessitates the creation of robust legislation by our government leaders to enforce a better system. Therefore, it is crucial to vote for leaders who prioritize and take pride in fostering a sustainable fisheries sector. And as a simple step forward, we can all make a conscious effort to support sustainable fishing companies by checking the labels on seafood products and inquiring about the sourcing practices at our local fish and chip shops.
At the individual level, it is important to be aware of the origin of our seafood. When shopping at the grocery store, the array of options can be overwhelming. Therefore, it is essential to look for high-standard, sustainably accredited labels such as the Marine Stewardship Council's blue tick. Seafood fraud is highly problematic and despite occasional media scrutiny, this blue tick remains the highest standard label and our best choice for supporting a future of sustainable fisheries. If you cannot find a sustainability label on the package, ensure that the type of fish and its origin have been identified.* Otherwise, it's best to leave it on the shelf.
The management strategies employed by Peruvian anchovy companies serve as perfect examples of what can be done to ensure the survival of fisheries worldwide. This endeavor requires investment and collaboration from all stakeholders. While the success of a fishery is heavily influenced by environmental variations, it demonstrates that fishing can be a sustainable practice. If we intend to continue relying on the ocean as a source of food and income, it is essential that we make concerted efforts to sustainably harvest target species while minimizing harmful impacts on other species and the broader ecosystem.
Throughout history, countless examples have shown the power of people standing together to enforce change. We achieved the ban on whaling by uniting as a global mass movement. Having successfully saved the whales, it is now time to shift our focus to fishing practices as a whole. There is still much to learn and better management will not occur spontaneously. It’s time we respect our oceans and demand sustainable fishing, if only to ensure our own job and food security.
* Almost every Australian fish & chip shop offers the choice to purchase ‘flake’ or ‘white fish’. These are cryptic names used for shark and include approximately 150-200 different species. ³³ Australia's gummy shark fishery is a sustainable source of flake for fish & chip shops nationwide. However, this fishery is also associated with the capture of critically endangered school-sharks, also known as shark-fin-soup sharks.³⁴ Despite the school-shark population in Australia declining to less than 10% of its original size, the government permits the legal sale of this species as "bycatch" due to its economic value. By focusing efforts on conserving this species, there is hope that one day it can be marketed as sustainable catch rather than bycatch, which currently threatens its very existence.
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